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No.  Ill 


Health,  Education,  Recreation 


THE  MONEY  COST  OF  REPETITION 

Versus 

THE  MONEY  SAVING  THROUGH 
ACCELERATION 


LEONARD  P.  AYRES,  Ph.D. 


:^in  I  ("i 


Reprinted  from 
The  American  School  Board  Journal,  January,  1912 

BY  the 

Department  of  Child  Hygiene 

Russell  Sage  Foundation 

400  Metropolitan  Tower,  New  York  City 


1-12-16 


^ 


1-0  3  '. 


The  Money  Cost  of  Repetition 

versus 

The  Money  Saving  Through  Acceleration 

After  a  campaign  of  education  extending  over  many  years 
Congress,  through  its  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  has  compelled  manu- 
facturers of  food  and  medicinal  products  to  print  on  the  labels 
of  the  packages  a  list  of  the  ingredients,  with  the  quantity  of 
each.  Recently,  another  campaign  of  education  has  been  waged 
by  schoolmen  to  secure  in  the  publication  of  school  reports  a 
plain  statement  of  the  ingredients  of  the  statistics  put  out 
for  popular  consumption.  The  second  campaign  resembles  the 
first  in  that  it  grew  out  of  the  discovery  that  educational  sta- 
tistics, like  food  products,  are  frequently  adulterated  with 
dangerous  coloring  matter  that  enhances  their  appearance  but 
detracts  from  their  usefulness. 

The  present  article  is  an  attempt  to  identify  and  measure  some 
of  the  ingredients  that  are  active  elements  in  the  data  that  tell 
us  how  much  American  cities  spend  on  public  education,  and  what 
they  get  for  their  money.  It  is  based  on  the  returns  from  a  co- 
operative investigation  conducted  in  the  spring  of  191 1  by  the 
Division  of  Education  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  and  the 
superintendents  of  schools  of  twenty-nine  cities. 

This  investigation  gathered  the  school  histories  of  the  206,495 
children  enrolled  in  the  eight  elementary  grades  of  these  cities 
at  the  close  of  the  school  year  1910-1911,  and  the  resulting  data 
show,  among  other  things,  the  number  of  years  of  schooling  re- 
quired by  each  of  these  children  to  reach  the  grade  in  which  he 
was  at  that  time.  These  progress  data  throw  light  on  some 
phases  of  the  relation  between  school  expenditures  and  school 
results. 

Slow,  Normal,  and  Rapid  Progress 

In  many  studies  made  in  the  past  few  years  investigators  of 

school  conditions  have  endeavored  to  compute  the  cost  to  the 

school  system  of  the  repetition  of  grades  by  children  who  make 

slow   progress.     The   common   method   of   these   investigations 

3 


has  been  to  find  the  total  cost  of  repetition  by  multiplying  the 
annual  per  capita  cost  by  the  number  of  children  who  were  re- 
peating grades.  These  studies  were  open  to  criticism  because 
in  general  they  failed  to  take  into  account  the  fact  that  while 
many  children  repeat  grades,  and  thus  involve  increased  ex- 
penditure, there  are  also  many  children  who  make  rapid  progress 
and  thus  counterbalance  part  of  this  added  expense. 

Now  it  is  evident  that  if  the  number  of  years  lost  by  slow  chil- 
dren in  a  school  system  were  equalled  by  the  number  of  years 
gained  by  those  making  rapid  progress,  the  money  expenditure 
would  be  just  the  same  as  though  every  child  were  regularly 
promoted  every  year.  Moreover,  this  gratifying  condition  would 
indicate  that  the  course  of  study  and  system  of  promotions  were 
so  accurately  adjusted  to  meet  the  needs  and  abilities  of  the 
children  that  the  average  children  progressed  at  the  normal  rate, 
the  slow  ones  required  somewhat  more  time  to  do  the  work,  and 
an  equal  number  of  bright  ones  were  able  to  do  it  in  less  than  the 
normal  time.  The  data  of  the  investigation  under  discussion 
show  how  nearly  the  different  school  systems  studied  approach 
this  standard. 

For  example,  the  records  show  there  were  2371  children  in  the 
elementary  grades  of  Amsterdam,  New  York,  at  the  close  of  the 
past  school  year.  Their  distribution  by  grades  shows  how  many 
years  of  schooling  would  have  been  taken  by  these  children  to 
reach  their  school  standings  at  that  time  if  they  had  all  uni- 
formly made  normal  progress.     The  figures  are  as  follows: — 


NUMBER  OF  CHILDREN  BY  GRADES  AND  TOTAL  NORMAL 
YEARS  OF  SCHOOLING  OF  CHILDREN  IN  ELEMENTARY 
GRADES,  AMSTERDAM,  NEW  YORK,  JUNE,  191 1 


Grade 

Number 

School  Years  at 
Normal  Progress 

Total  Normal  Years 
OF  Schooling 

I         

323 
354 
362 

413 
330 
227 
182 
180 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

= 

323 

708 

1086 

2 

■5      

4. 

1652 
1650 
1362 
1274 
1440 

C 

6         

7 

8 

Total 

2371 

9495 

5 

Now,  in  point  of  fact  these  2371  children  had  not  made  uni- 
formly normal  progress.  Their  actual  progress  records  showed 
the  following: — 

5  years  slower  than  normal i 

4  years  slower  than  normal 3 

3  years  slower  than  normal 31 

2  years  slower  than  normal 135 

I  year  slower  than  normal 321 

Normal  Progress 1 167 

1  year  faster  than  normal 675 

2  years  faster  than  normal 30 

3  years  faster  than  normal 6 

4  years  faster  than  normal i 

6  years  faster  than  normal i 

A  computation  based  on  these  figures  shows  that  the  children 
who  had  made  slow  progress  had  lost  a  total  of  701  years,  while 
the  rapid  ones  had  gained  a  total  of  763  school  years.  This 
makes  Amsterdam's  accounting  for  all  the  children  in  her  ele- 
mentary schools  the  following : — 

Total  normal  years  of  schooling,  all  pupils 9.495 

Debit:  Years  lost  by  slow  pupils 701  

10,196 

Credit:  Years  gained  by  rapid  pupils 763  

Years  actually  required  by  all  pupils 9.433 

This  accounting  shows  that  the  years  actually  required  by 
all  the  pupils  in  the  Amsterdam  schools  to  reach  their  present 
standing  was  slightly  less  than  the  normal  number  of  years. 
In  terms  of  percentage  it  was  99.3  per  cent  of  normal.  To  put 
this  in  another  way,  the  taxpayers  of  Amsterdam  have  a  right 
to  demand  that  their  public  schools  shall  carry  each  child  through 
as  many  progressive  steps  of  the  educational  system  as  is  com- 
patible with  covering  each  step  thoroughly.  They  expect  to 
pay  extra  for  each  child  who  must  do  one  unit  of  work  twice, 
and  they  expect  to  pay  less  for  the  education  of  the  bright  child 
who  completes  the  work  in  less  than  the  normal  time.  In  point 
of  fact,  the  rapid  children  a  little  more  than  counterbalance  the 
slow  ones,  with  the  result  that  the  taxpayers  actually  pay  ninety- 
nine  cents  for  each  dollar's  worth  of  school  progress  made  by 
her  public  school  children. 

But  the  situation  in  Amsterdam  is  almost  unique.  There 
are  few  cities  where  the  years  lost  by  slow  pupils  are  so  nearly 


counterbalanced  by  those  gained  by  the  rapid  ones.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  relation  between  years  lost  and  years 
gained  in  each  of  the  twenty-nine  cities : — 

II.  PUPILS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  GRADES,  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF 
YEARS  LOST  BY  SLOW  PUPILS,  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  YEARS 
GAINED  BY  RAPID  PUPILS,  AND  RATIO  OF  YEARS  LOST  TO 
YEARS  GAINED,  JUNE,  191 1 


City 


Amsterdam,  N.  Y 

Bayonne,  N.  J 

Canton,  Ohio 

Danbury,  Conn 

Danville,  111 

East  St.  Louis,  111 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 

Elmira,  N.  Y 

Hazleton,  Penn 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Kenosha,  Wis 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Montclair,  N.  J 

Muskegon,  Mich 

New  Orleans,  La.     White. . 

New  Rochelle,  N.  Y 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y 

Passaic,  N.  J 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J 

Plainfield,  N.  J 

Quincy,  Mass 

Racine,  Wis 

Reading,  Penn 

Rockford,  111 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Topeka,  Kansas 

Trenton,  N.  J 

Watertown,  N.  Y 

Total 


PuPrLS  IN 

Years 

Years 

Element- 

Lost by 

Gained 

ary 

Slow 

BY  Rapid 

Grades 

Pupils 

Pupils 

.     2,371 

701 

763 

7.033 

3,741 

1,516 

5.567 

3,445 

120 

1.967 

761 

467 

2,260 

1,197 

164 

5.380 

2,883 

933 

7.058 

3,777 

987 

2,487 

1,383 

314 

2,655 

1,577 

77 

23.874 

7,721 

5.261 

2,223 

1,265 

174 

32,251 

9.115 

6,019 

2,568 

1,880 

277 

3.163 

1.419 

447 

23.664 

11,714 

3.638 

3.641 

1,804 

880 

3.244 

1,506 

195 

5.541 

3.200 

895 

3.947 

2,878 

639 

2,312 

1.253 

171 

4.540 

2,705 

190 

4.075 

1,496 

138 

10,585 

7,860 

683 

5,649 

2,156 

963 

7.846 

4,002 

867 

13,610 

7,118 

1. 177 

4.894 

1,913 

627 

8,787 

5.507 

789 

3.303 

2,023 

392 

206,495 

98,000 

29,763 

Ratio  or  Years 
Lost  to  Gained 


0.9  to  I 

2.5  to  I 

28.7  to  I 

1.6  to  I 

7.3  to  I 

3.1  to  I 
3.8  to  I 

4.4  to  I 
20.5  to  I 

1-5  to  I 
7.3  to  I 

1.5  to  I 
8.3  to  I 

3.2  to  I 

3.2  to  I 

2.1  to  I 

7.7  to  I 

3.6  to  I 
4-5  to  I 

7.3  to  I 
14.2  to  I 

10.8  to  I 
II. 5  to  I 

2.2  to  I 
4.6  to  I 
6.0  to  I 
3.0  to  I 
7.0  to  I 
5-2  to  I 


Average,  6.5  to  i 


A  glance  at  the  figures  in  the  right-hand  column  shows  that 
conditions  vary  so  greatly  in  these  school  systems  that  the 
proportion  between  years  lost  and  years  gained  ranges  from 
virtual  equality  in  such  cities  as  Amsterdam,  Milwaukee,  and 
Indianapolis  to  extreme  inequality  in  cities  where  the  number  of 
years  lost  is  from  twenty  to  thirty  times  as  great  as  the  number 


of  years  gained.  In  the  average  city  the  ratio  is  six  and  one-half 
years  lost  by  slow  progress  for  every  year  gained  through  rapid 
progress.  No  clearer  demonstration  could  be  made  of  the  very 
significant  fact  that  in  American  school  systems  in  general 
the  course  of  study  and  schemes  of  promotion  are  adjusted  to 
meet  the  needs  and  abilities  of  the  brighter  and  stronger  child 
rather  than  those  of  the  average  child. 


Time  is  Money 

This  condition  has  a  direct  relation  to  our  figures  for  school 
expenditure,  for  if  these  figures  are  to  serve  a  truly  useful  end 
they  must  evaluate  endeavor,  not  merely  by  bulk,  but  in  terms 
of  results.  They  must  contain  some  expression  of  what  we  get 
for  our  money.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  that  the  annual  per 
capita  cost  for  the  child  is  $30  unless  we  know  something  definite, 
of  what  we  purchase  for  that  sum. 

This  new  element  will  be  added  when  we  change  our  unit  of 
inquiry  in  reckoning  per  capita  cost.  At  present  the  unit  of 
inquiry  is  the  average  expenditure  for  each  child  in  the  school 
system.  That  is  to  say,  the  figure  tells  us  how  much  it  costs 
to  keep  a  child  sitting  at  a  desk  for  one  school  year.  The  unit 
of  inquiry  which  will  give  us  much  more  significant  information 
is  the  one  which  will  tell  how  much  it  costs,  on  the  average,  to 
enable  the  child  to  take  one  step  forward  on  his  educational 
journey  through  the  grades. 

In  systems  where  the  time  lost  by  slow  pupils  is  counter- 
balanced by  the  time  gained  by  rapid  ones,  the  average  expense 
of  keeping  a  child  in  school  one  year  and  the  expense  entailed 
in  sending  him  forward  one  grade  are  just  the  same.  In  most 
systems,  however,  as  we  have  seen,  the  time  lost  by  slow  pupils  ^ 
is  distinctly  greater  than  that  gained  by  rapid  ones,  and  thus  the  v 
per  capita  cost  of  one  year's  progress  is  more  than  the  per  capita 
cost  of  keeping  the  child  in  school  for  one  year. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  considering  the  case  of  Danville, 
Illinois,  where  the  relation  between  the  aggregate  number  of 
years  that  it  would  have  required  for  all  the  pupils  to  reach  the 
grades  in  which  they  were  last  June  if  they  had  made  normal 
progress,  and  the  number  of  years  of  school  attendance  actually 
required  is  shown  in  the  following  table: — 


8 

III     DISTRIBUTION  OF  PUPILS  BY  GRADES.  AGGREGATE  YEARS' 

■  ATTENDANCE    RFCOUIRED    FOR    THEM    TO    REACH  THOSE 

GRADES  AT  NORMAL  PROGRESS,  AND  AGGREGATE  NUMBER 

OF    YEARS    ACTUALLY    REQUIRED.    DANVILLE,    ILLINOIS, 

JUNE,  1911 


The  figures  show  that  if  the  years  lost  by  slow  children  in  the 
Danville  schools  had  been  counterbalanced  by  the  years  gained 
by  rapid  pupils,  the  aggregate  number  of  years  of  schooling  of  the 
children  in  the  elementary  grades  would  have  been  9030.  The 
records  show,  however,  that  the  slow  children  lost  more  time  than 
the  rapid  ones  gained,  and  so  the  actual  aggregate  years  of 
attendance  was  10,063,  or  1033  years  more  than  the  normal 
number. 

This  is  peculiarly  a  situation  where  "time  is  money."  The 
lack  of  balance  between  the  two  groups  of  slow  and  rapid  pupils 
in  this  city  has  entailed  an  expenditure  on  the  part  of  the  tax- 
payers to  defray  the  cost  of  1033  extra  years  of  schooling  for 
the  children  in  the  elementary  grades  alone.  According  to  the 
data  published  in  the  report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  for  1910,  the  running  expenses  in  the  Danville  schools 
amount  each  year  to  about  $20  per  capita,  and  this  figure  cannot 
be  far  from  accurate  when  applied  to  the  children  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools.  This  means  that  the  citizens  of  Danville 
have  paid  about  $20,660  extra  for  the  schooling  of  these  children. 

Every  city  where  the  school  years  lost  amount  to  more  than 
those  gained  pays  a  similar  educational  tax,  the  size  of  which  is 
determined  by  the  preponderance  of  years  lost  over  years  gained 
and  the  amount  of  the  annual  per  capita  cost  of  education  in 
that  city.     The  following  table  shows  the  difference  between 


the  number  of  years  lost  and  the  number  gained  by  the  ele- 
mentary school  pupils  of  each  city,  the  per  capita  cost  of  school- 
ing, and  the  loss  entailed  in  paying  for  the  lack  of  balance  be- 
tween time  lost  and  time  gained : — 

IV.  SURPLUS  OF  YEARS  LOST  OVER  YEARS  GAINED,  PER  CAPITA 
COST  OF  ONE  YEAR'S  SCHOOLING,  AND  AGGREGATE  EX- 
PENSE INVOLVED  IN  PAYING  FOR  THE  SURPLUS  TIME 
LOST  BY  PUPILS,  BASED  ON  RECORDS  OF  PUPILS  IN  ELE- 
MENTARY GRADES,  JUNE,  191 1 


City 


Amsterdam .  .  . 

Bayonne 

Canton 

Danbury 

Danville 

E.  St.  Louis.  . 
Elizabeth .... 

Elmira 

Hazleton 

Indianapolis  . . 
Kenosha  .  -.  .  .  . 
Milwaukee .  .  . 
Montclair  .  .  .  . 
Muskegon.  .  .  . 
New  Orleans . 
New  Rochelle . 
Niagara  Falls . 

Passaic 

Perth  Amboy . 
Plainfield .... 

Quincy 

Racine 

Reading 

Rockford .  .  .  . 
Schenectady .  . 
Syracuse .... 

Topeka 

Trenton 

Watertown .  . 


Surplus  of 

Years  Lost  Over 

Years  Gained 


62* 
2,225 

3.325 
294 

1.033 
1.950 
2,790 
1,069 
1,500 
2,460 
1,091 
3.096 

1.653 
972 
8,076 
924 
I.311 
2,305 
2,239 
1,082 
2,515 
1,358 
7.177 
1,193 
3,135 
5,941 
1,286 
4,718 
1. 63 1 


Total . 


Per  Capita  Cost 

FOR  One  Year's 

Schooling 


68,287 


$29.47 
32.66 
26.06 

25-03 
20.39 
27,42 
21,76 
25.88 
19-63 
32.13 
22.12 

31-32 
58.30 

25-49 
24.58 
44-05 
28.68 
27.40 
23-40 
36.42 
22.15 
24-93 
24-34 
56.55 
28.45 
28.23 
28.88 
29.91 
23.25 


Aggregate  Expense 

of  Surplus  Time 

Lost 


$1,827* 
7,267 
8,665 

735 
2,106 

5,346 
6,071 
2,766 
2,944 
7.903 
2,413 
9,696 

9,637 
2,477 

19,850 
4,070 
5,193 
6,315 
5,239 
3.940 
5,570 
3,385 

17,468 
6,746 
8,919 

16,771 
3.713 

14,111 
3,792 


$191,281 


*  62  years  gained  at  a  saving  of  $1,827. 


The  grand  total  of  $191,281  is  the  extra  amount  that  it  has 
cost  for  the  maladjustment  of  courses  of  study  and  systems  of 
promotion  to  the  abilities  of  the  children  in  these  schools.     This 


10 


is  not  annual  cost,  but  the  total  involved  in  the  schooling  of  all 
the  children  whose  records  were  studied.  As  the  average  number 
of  years  of  school  attendance  among  these  children  is  almost 
exactly  4.2  years,  the  annual  expenditure  for  the  surplus  of  lost 
time  is  about  $45,543. 


Annual  Per  Capita  Cost 

The  foregoing  figures  furnish  measures  of  the  extent  and  money 
cost  of  the  maladjustment  between  the  capabilities  of  the  chil- 
dren, the  difficulty  of  their  school  work,  and  the  flexibility  of  the 
promotion  systems,  but  they  do  not  give  us  any  expression  of  the 
comparative  degree  of  importance  of  this  maladjustment  in  the 
different  cities,  or  its  effect  on  the  per  capita  cost  of  school  sup- 
port. How  these  data  may  be  secured  is  illustrated  by  referring 
back  to  the  case  of  Danville.  As  Table  III  shows,  the  aggregate 
number  of  years  of  schooling  for  all  the  children  at  normal 
progress  would  be  9,030,  while  the  actual  aggregate  years  of 
attendance  are  10,063. 

This  is  III  per  cent  of  the  normal  number.  In  Danville  the 
annual  per  capita  cost  of  keeping  a  child  in  school  is  $20.39.  As 
the  actual  time  required  by  the  children  to  reach  their  present 
grades  is  iii  per  cent  of  the  normal  time,  the  cost  of  completing 
the  work  of  each  grade  is  1 11  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  keeping  the 
child  in  school  one  year,  or  $22.63.  In  a  similar  way  we  may 
compute  for  each  city  the  relation  in  percentages  between  the 
normal  time  and  the  actual  time  required  to  complete  any  unit 
of  work,  and  how  this  affects  the  cost  of  carrying  a  child  forward 
one  grade  as  contrasted  with  merely  keeping  him  in  school  one 
year.     These  computations  follow  on  p.  11. 

Summary: — 

1 .  A  study  of  the  school  histories  of  206,495  children  in  the 

elementary  grades  of  twenty-nine  cities  indicates  that 
in  most  cities  the  years  lost  by  slow  pupils  amount  to 
much  more  than  the  years  gained  by  rapid  pupils,  the 
proportion  in  the  average  city  being  6.5  years  lost  for 
every  year  gained. 

2.  In  most  cities  the  course  of  study  and  system  of  promo- 

tions are  adapted  to  the  capabilities  of  the  bright  rather 
than  to  those  of  the  average  child. 


II 


PER  CENT  THAT  ACTUAL  AGGREGATE  YEARS  OF  SCHOOLING 
ARE  OF  NORMAL  YEARS  OF  SCHOOLING,  AND  ANNUAL  PER 
CAPITA  COST  OF  PROMOTING  ONE  CHILD  ONE  GRADE  IN 
EACH  OF  TWENTY-NINE  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS  RANKED 
ACCORDING  TO  THE  PERCENTAGES 


C. 


No. 


I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
lo 
II 

12 

13 
H 
15 
i6 

17 
i8 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 
25 
26 

27 
28 

29 


City 


Amsterdam .  . 
Milwaukee.  .  . 
Indianapolis .  . 
Rockford .... 
New  Rochelle . 

Topeka 

Danbury .... 
Muskegon .  .  . 

Bayonne 

Racine 

New  Orleans . 
E.  St.  Louis.  . 
Niagara  Falls . 

Danville 

Elizabeth .... 
Schenectady .  . 

Syracuse 

Passaic 

Plainfield 

Quincy 

Watertown .  .  . 
Hazleton .... 

Kenosha 

Canton 

Elmira 

Montclair .  .  .  . 
Perth  Amboy . 

Reading 

Trenton 


Per  Cent 
Actual  Years 
OF  Schooling 
ARE  OF  Nor- 
mal Years 
OF  Schooling 


Average . 


99 

lOI 
102 
105 
106 
106 
107 
107 
108 
108 
109 

no 
no 
III 
III 
III 
III 

112 
112 
112 
112 
114 
114 
115 
115 
116 
116 
119 
132 


Actual  Annual 

Per  Capita 

Cost 


$29.47 
31-32 
32.13 
56.55 
44.05 
28.88 

25.03 
25.49 
32.66 

24.93 
24.58 
27.42 
28.68 
20.39 
21.76 

28.45 
28.23 
27.40 
36.42 
22.15 
2325 
19.63 
22.12 
26.06 
25.88 
58.30 
23.40 

24.34 
29.91 


$29.27 


Cost  of  Promot 

ING  One  Child 

One  Grade 


$29.18 
31.63 
32.77 
59.38 
46.69 
30.61 
26.78 
27.27 

35-27 
26.92 
26.79 
30.16 

31-55 
22.63 
24.15 
31-58 

31-34 
30.69 
40.79 
24.81 
26.04 
22.38 
25.22 
29.97 
29.76 
67.63 
27.14 
28.96 
39-48 


$32.33 


In  these  twenty-nine  cities  the  annual  money  cost  to  the 
taxpayers  of  the  maladjustment  of  the  course  of  study 
and  systems  of  promotion  to  the  capabilities  of  the 
children  amounts  to  about  $45,543. 

In  the  average  city  this  maladjustment  involves  an  in- 
crease in  school  expense  amounting  to  about  11  per 
cent. 


Some   Pamphlets    on  Measurements    in    Education 

Issued  by  the  Department  of  Child  Hygiene, 

Russell  Sage  Foundation 

No.  6i.  The    Relation    of    Physical    Defects    to    School 
Progress.     Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Ph.D. 
A  statistical  study  based  on  7608  cases.     9  pp. 

No.  77.  Why  250,000  Children  Quit  School. 
Luther  H.  Gulick,  M.D. 
An  account  of  an  investigation  of  the  reasons  why 
so  large  a  proportion  of  children  fail  to  complete  the 
school  course.     30  pp. 

No.  94.  Measurements  as  Applied  to  School  Hygiene. 
Luther  H.  Gulick,  M.D. 
A    presentation   of   the    need    for    measuring   the 
results  of  our  present  school  processes.     7  pp. 

No.  107.  The  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  for  Intelli- 
gence:   Some  Criticisms  and' Suggestions. 
Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Ph.D. 
A  critical  study  of  these  tests  as  used  in  American 
schools,  and  suggestions  as  to  their  adaptation  to 
our  conditions.     12  pp. 

No.  108.  The  Identification  of  the  Misfit  Child. 
Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Ph.D. 
Data  from  a  study  of  the  age  and  progress  records 
of  school  children  in  twenty-nine  cities.     13  pp. 

No.  no.  The  Relative  Responsibility  of  School  and  Soci- 
ety FOR  THE  Over-age  Child. 
Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Ph.D. 
Data  from  a  study  of  the  age  and  progress  records 
of  school  children  in  twenty-nine  cities,  showing  the 
number  of  children  over-age  because  of  late  entrance, 
slow  progress,  and  both  causes  combined. 


12 


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